Anshen, Frank (2002) “Language Planning” in The Handbook of Linguistics (eds.) Mark Aronoff & Janie Rees-Miller. Blackwell Publishing. Blackwell Reference Online.

http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405
102520_chunk_g9781405102522034

There appear to be four major factors at work in the selection of a national language. These are nationalism, ethnic self-interest, linguistic demographics, and the prestige of languages involved. Often there is a combination of the first two, with the second frequently masquerading as the first. - 527

Gutknecht, Christoph (2002) “Translation” in The Handbook of Linguistics (eds.) Mark Aronoff & Janie Rees-Miller. Blackwell Publishing. Blackwell Reference Online.

Introduction

Translation: a comparative device

Modes of Interpreting: Consecutive and Simultaneous

One typically speaks of consecutive interpreting when the person requiring the interpreter participates in the communication directly. In such cases interpreter waits for the person to finish speaking, or until the amount of information approaches the limit of the interpreter’s retention capacity, and then the interpreter gives a translation. – 519

The mode of simultaneous interpreting is typically used when a person who requires an interpreter is not participating in the communication directly. – 519

Translation Principles

“words that are identical or at least very similar in spelling and/or sound in two or more languages” are called ‘false friends’ – 522

False Friends

5.1 Synchronic Interlingual False Friends

5.2 Diachronic Intralingual False Friends

5.3 Diachronic Interlingual False Friends

5.4 Synchronic Intralingual False Friends

Translating by Factors

translating by factors does not mean taking prescribed factors into account as such but bearing in mind the specific roles or functions these factors fulfill. – 524

“Target Factors” relate to the target or purpose of the translation as determined by the client, for instance, carrying out comparative linguistic research or describing to the hearer a certain state of affairs as closely as possible. – 524

Machine Translation and Computer-assisted Translation

http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405102520_chunk_g9781405102522033

Gutknecht, Christoph (2002) “Translation” in The Handbook of Linguistics (eds.) Mark Aronoff & Janie Rees-Miller. Blackwell Publishing. Blackwell Reference Online.

Introduction

Translation: a comparative device

Modes of Interpreting: Consecutive and Simultaneous

One typically speaks of consecutive interpreting when the person requiring the interpreter participates in the communication directly. In such cases interpreter waits for the person to finish speaking, or until the amount of information approaches the limit of the interpreter’s retention capacity, and then the interpreter gives a translation. – 519

The mode of simultaneous interpreting is typically used when a person who requires an interpreter is not participating in the communication directly. – 519

Translation Principles

“words that are identical or at least very similar in spelling and/or sound in two or more languages” are called ‘false friends’ – 522

False Friends

5.1 Synchronic Interlingual False Friends

5.2 Diachronic Intralingual False Friends

5.3 Diachronic Interlingual False Friends

5.4 Synchronic Intralingual False Friends

Translating by Factors

translating by factors does not mean taking prescribed factors into account as such but bearing in mind the specific roles or functions these factors fulfill. – 524

“Target Factors” relate to the target or purpose of the translation as determined by the client, for instance, carrying out comparative linguistic research or describing to the hearer a certain state of affairs as closely as possible. – 524

Machine Translation and Computer-assisted Translation

http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405102520_chunk_g97814051025220323

Larry Abbott: “A Time of Vision”: A Contemporary American Indian Art and Artists

Introduction

Contemporary native art is produced by individuals from diverse cultures and settings, and because these individuals offer the viewer manifold and evolving words and images, it is imperative that the artists themselves describe the contours of their own and, by extension Native art history and practice. Contemporary art by indigenous artists reflect the unique sensibility of the individual who produced it and that sensibility is shaped in many ways. The voice of the artist can help us understand the context – personal, cultural, historical – out of which his or her art emerges. – 130

Anita Fields

The artist’s role in history has always been to document what is going on in the here and now. – 132

Harry Fonseca

Bob Haozous

Joanna Osburn-Bigfeather

Melaine Printup Hope

Lisa Mayo

George Morrison

Ramona Sakiestewa

Duane Slick

Richard Ray Whitman

Wolf Song

The fact is that there is no artist who is frozen in time, so as a storyteller I see my purpose as keeping the old tradition alive, being a voice for old stories, the stories of creation, the stories of good people and not-so-good people and the tricksters and also bringing that voice into the contemporary era because the lessons are timeless. – 159

Elizabeth Woody

Lakoff, Robin (1976) Language and Woman’s Place. NY: Harper & Row Publishers.

Preface

Part 1: Language and Woman’s Place

1. Introduction

It is indeed true that our feelings about the world color our expression of our thoughts, then we can use our linguistic behavior as a diagnostic of our hidden feelings about things. – 03-04

So a girl is damned if she does, damned if she doesn’t. If she refuses to talk like a lady, she is ridiculed and subjected to criticism as unfeminine, if she does learn, she is ridiculed as unable to think clearly, unable to take part in a serious discussion: in some sense, as less than fully human. – 06

2. Talking Like a Lady

“Women’s language” shows up in all levels of the grammar of English. We find differences in the choice and frequency of lexical items; in the situations in which certain syntactic rules are performed; in intonational and other suprasegmental patterns. – 08

Women, then, make for more precise discriminations in naming colors than do men. – 08

We might ask why fine discrimination of color is relevant for women, but not for men. A clue is contained in the way many men in our society view other “unworldly” topics, such as high culture and the church, as outside the world of men’s work, relegated to women and men whose masculinity is not unquestionable. – 09

Another group that has, ostensibly at least, taken itself out of the search for power and money is that of academic men. They are frequently viewed by other groups as analogous in some ways to women – they don’t really work, they are supported in their frivolous pursuits of others, what they do doesn’t really count in the real world, and so on. – 14

A tag, in its usage as well as in its syntactic shape (in English) is mid-way between an outright statement and a yes-no question: it is less assertive than the former, but more confident than the latter. – 15

One aspect of politeness is as we have just described leaving a decision open, not imposing your mind or views, or claims on anyone else. – 18

3. Talking about Women

When a word acquires a bad connotation by association with something unpleasant or embarrassing, people may search for substitutes that do not have the uncomfortable effect – that is, euphemisms. – 19

4. Conclusion

Part 2: Why Women Are Ladies

1. Introduction

2. Forms of Politeness

The rules (of politeness) are as follows: 1. Formality: keep aloof, 2. Deference: give options, 3. Comaraderie: show sympathy – 65

A system of rules by which factual information my best be conveyed has been proposed by H.P. Grice in his paper “The Logic of Conversation”. In this work, Grice proposes four basic rules of conversation, which we can summarize as follows:

1. Quality. Say only what is true.

2. Quantity. Say only as much, and just as much, as is necessary.

3. Relevance. Be relevant.

4. Manner. Be perspicuous. Don’t be ambiguous. Don’t be obscure. Be succinct. – 71

Stereotypes are not to be ignored: first, because for a stereotype to exist, it must be an exaggeration of something that is in fact in existence and able to be recognized; and second, because one measures oneself, for better or worse, according to how well or poorly one conforms to use the stereotype one is supposed to conform to. – 73

3. Women and Politeness

4. Conclusion

Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan, Ruqaiya (1976) Cohesion in English. Hong Kong: Longman.

The word TEXT is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole. -01

A text is best regarded as a SEMANTIC unit: a unit not of form but of meaning. Thus it is related to a clause or sentence not by size but by REALIZATION, the coding of one symbolic system in another. A text does not consist of sentences; it is REALIZED BY, or enhanced in, sentences. -02

A text has texture, and this is what distinguishes it from something that is not a text. It derives this texture from the fact that it functions as a unity with respect to its environment. – 02

The concept of cohesion is semantic one; it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. – 04

Cohesion occurs when the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another. The one presupposes the other, in the sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse to it. – 04

The Deictic is the element in the nominal group that relates to the HERE AND NOW, linking the thing referred to its verbal and situational context. – 159

5.6       Causal

CAUSAL relation is expressed by:

so, thus, hence, therefore, consequently, accordingly, as a result (of that), in consequence (of that), because of that

Causal Relations: Result, Reason, Purpose

Internal Cohesion:

thus, hence, therefore, arising out of this, following from this, it follows that, from this it appears that, we may conclude that: all these imply some kind of reasoning or argument from a promise.

CONDITIONAL TYPE:

Causal: ‘a, therefore b’

Conditional: ‘possibly a; if so, then b’

Summary of CLAUSAL type:

Clausal Relation: General	external & internal
Simple	so, thus, hence, therefore
Emphatic	consequently, accordingly, because of this
Clausal Relations, specific
Reason	(Ex) for this reason, on account of this
	(In) it follows (from this), on the basis
Result	(Ex) as a result (of this), in consequence (of this)
	(in) arising out of this
Purpose	(ex.) for this purpose, with this in mind/view, with this intention
	(in) to this end
Reversed Clausal Relations	General
Simple	For, because
Conditional relations	External & Internal
Simple	Then
Emphatics	In that case, that being the case, in such an event, under those circumstances
Generalized	Under the circumstances
Reversed Polarity	Otherwise, Under the circumstances

5.7 Temporal relations

Simple Temporal Relations (external)
Sequential	(and) then, next, afterwards, after that, subsequently
Simultaneous	(just) then, at the same time, simultaneously
Preceding	Earlier, before then/that, previously
Complex Temporal Relations (External)
Immediate	At once, thereupon, on which, just before
Interrupted	Soon, presently, later, after a time; some time earlier, formerly
Repetitive	Next time, on another occasion; this time, on this occasion; the last time, on a previous occasion
Specific	Next day, five minutes later, five minutes earlier
Durative	Meanwhile, all this time
Terminal	By this time; up till that time, until then
Punctiliar	Next moment, at this point/moment; the previous moment
Conclusive Relations (External)
Simple	Finally, at last, in the end, eventually
Sequential and Conclusive Relations (external): Correlative forms
Sequential	First… then, first …. next, first … second..
Conclusive	At first… finally, at first … in the end
Temporal Relations (Internal)
Sequential	Then, next, secondly…
Conclusive	Finally, as a final point, in conclusion
Temporal Relations (Internal) Correlative forms
Sequential	First… next, first… then, first… secondly…; in the first place…; to begin with…
Conclude	…finally; … to conclude with
‘Here and Now’ relations (internal)
Past	Up to now, up to this point, hitherto, hencefore,
Present	At this point, here
Future	From now on, henceforward
Summary Relations (internal)
Culminative	To sum up, in short, briefly
Resumptive	To resume, to get back to the point, anyway

5.8 Other Conjunctive items (Continuatives)

5.8.1 Now

5.8.2 Of course

5.8.3 Well

5.8.4 Anyway

5.8.5 Surely

5.8.6 After all

5.9 The cohesive function of intonation

Cohesive elements relate the sentence to something that has gone before it; they are normally anaphoric – there is no new content to them – 271

THE FALLING TONE, Tone 1, if it is used in the context of a cohesive element, has the sense of ‘and here’s something more’ – 272

Lexical Cohesion

6.1 The class of ‘General Nouns’

Lexical cohesion – the cohesive effect achieved by the selection of vocabulary. – 275

One lexical item refers back to another, to which it is related by having a common referent. We shall refer to this general phenomena as REITERATION. – 278

6.2 Types of Reiteration

6.3 Lexical Relations as Cohesive Patterns

6.4 Collocation

Collocation: Cohesion that is achieved through the associations of lexical items that regularly co-occur. – 284

6.5 The general concept of lexical cohesion

The Meaning of Cohesion

7.1 Text

A text is best thought of not as grammatical unit, but rather as a unit of a different kind: a semiotic unit. The unity that it has is a unity of meaning in context, a texture that expresses the fact that it relates as a whole to the environment in which it is placed. – 293

A set of related sentences, with a single sentence as the limiting case, is the embodiment or realization of a text. So the expression of the semiotic unity of the text lies in the cohesion among the sentences of which it is composed. – 293

7.1.1 Length of text

7.1.2 Definitiveness of the concept of text

it is reasonable for us to make use of such cohesion as a criterion for the recognition of the boundaries of a text. For most purposes, we can consider that a new text begins where a sentence shows no cohesion with those that have preceded. – 295

7.1.3 Tight and loose texture

7.1.4 Imaginary texture

7.2 The general meaning of cohesion

Cohesion is necessary though not a sufficient condition for the creation of text. What creates text is the TEXTUAL, or text-forming, component of the linguistic system, of which cohesion is one part. The textual component as a whole is the set of resources in a language whose semantic function is that of expressing relationship to the environment. -298-299

7.3 The meaning of different kinds of cohesion

Nature of cohesive relation	Types of cohesion
Relatedness of form	Substitution and ellipsis; lexical collocation
Relatedness of reference	Reference; lexical reiteration
Semantic connection	Conjunction

7.3.1 General principles behind the different types

there are two possible channels for the recovery of information: the situation, and the text. – 305

7.3.2 Reference

Reference is the element between an element of the text and something else by reference to which it is interpreted in the given instance. Reference is a potentially cohesive relation because the thing that serves as the source of the interpretation may itself be an element of text. – 308-309

Either the reference item is interpreted through being IDENTIFIED with the referent in question; or it is interpreted through being COMPARED WITH the referent – explicitly not identified with it, but brought into some form of comparison with it. – 309

we can summarize the meaning of reference by using the term CO-INTERPRETATION. There is a semantic link between a reference item and that which it presupposes; but this does not mean that the two necessarily have the same referent. It means that the interpretation of the reference item DEPENDS IN SOME WAY on that of the presupposed. Coreference is one particular form that co-interpretation may take - where the two items do, in fact, refer to the same thing. – 314

7.3.3 Substitution and ellipsis

Reference implies that there is identity of meaning between the presupposing item and that which it presupposes, while substitution implies non-identity of meaning. – 315

Ellipsis is characteristic particularly of response: responses to yes/no questions, with ellipsis of the proposition, and to WH-questions, with ellipsis of all elements but the one required. – 317

Lexical cohesion: reiteration and collocation

Lexical cohesion is ‘phonic’ cohesion that is established through the structure of the LEXIS, or vocabulary, and hence (like substitution) at the lexicogrammatical level. – 318

Lexical cohesion embraces two distinct though related aspects which we referred to as REITERATION and COLLOCATION.

1. Reiteration: This is a repetition of a lexical item, or the occurrence of a synonym of some kind, in the context of reference; that is, where the two occurrences have the same referent. Typically, therefore, a reiterated lexical item is accompanied by a reference item, usually the or a demonstrative. The complex consisting of the plus reiterated lexical item is therefore cohesive by reference. – 318-319

2. Collocation: As remarked above, the repetition of a lexical item is cohesive in its own right, whether or not there is identity of reference, or any referential relation at all between the two. – 319

7.3.5 Conjunction

[Conjunction] is based on the assumption that there are in the linguistic system forms of systematic relationships between sentences. – 320

7.3.6 Summary

Representation in Linguistic	Semantic	Lexicogrammatical (typically)
Type of Cohesive Relation
Conjunction	Additive, Adversative, Casual and Temporal relations; external and internal	Discourse Adjuncts: adverbial groups, prepositional groups
Reference	Identification: By speech role By proximity By specificity (only) Reference point	Personal Demonstratives Definite Article Comparatives
Lexical Cohesion	Collocation (Similarity of lexical environment) Reiteration (Identity of lexical reference)	Same or associated lexical item Same lexical item synonym; superordinate; general word
Substitution	Identity of potential reference (class meaning) in context of nonidentity of actual  (instantial) reference	Verbal, nominal substitute Verbal or nominal clausal ellipsis

7.4.1 Texture within the sentence

7.4.2 The texture of discourse

7.4.3 The role of linguistic analysis

The linguistic analysis of a text is not an interpretation of that text: it is an explanation. – 327

The role of linguistics is to say how and why the text means what it does to the reader or listener, and how and why he evaluates it in a certain way. – 328

The analysis of cohesion

8.1 General Principles

A tie is a complex notion, because it includes not only the cohesive elements but also that which is presupposed by it. A tie is best interpreted as a RELATION between these two elements. – 329

A tie is thus a relational concept. It is also DIRECTIONAL; the relation is an asymmetric one. It may go either way; the direction may be anaphoric with the presupposed element preceding, or catophoric, with the presupposed element following. - 329