Harris, Roy (1998) “Writing and Proto-writing: From Sign to Metasign” in Integrational Linguistics: A First Reader (eds.) Roy Harris & George Wolf: 261-269. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd.

Any object with a surface which can be marked has the potential for use in communication in two possible ways:

(i) The object itself retains ‘semiotic neutrality’ merely providing a convenient surface for the inscription of a sign or signs.

(ii) The object itself functions as a sign, as well as acting as the bearer of a further (inscribed) sign or signs. 

            The latter possibility subdivided at its simplest into:

(iia) The object itself functions as emblem and the inscribed mark as token, or

(iib) The object itself functions as token and the inscribed mark as emblem. - 268

Harris, Roy (1998) “The Semiology of Textualization” in Integrational Linguistics: A First Reader (eds.) Roy Harris & George Wolf: 227-240. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd.

The term semantic enclave is defined by Wallis as ‘the part of a work of art which consists of signs of a different kind or from a different system than the sign of which the main body of that work of art consists.’ – 228

What constitute a sign is not given independently of the situation in which it occurs or of its material manifestation in that situation. – 238

the value of a sign is a function of the integrational proficiency which its identification and interpretation presuppose. – 238

Sign behavior as such cannot be treated simply as the exercise of individual choice from among a pre-determined inventory or system of signs. On the contrary, the status of being a sign is itself relative to a communication situation and determined by relevant features of that situation. Signs, in brief, are defined for an integrational semiology by communicational relevance in a situation and not by criteria for membership of some previously established typology. – 23

Taylor, Talbot J. (1998) “Do you understand? Criteria of understanding in Verbal Interaction” in Integrational Linguistics: A First Reader (eds.) Roy Harris & George Wolf: 198-208. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd.

“To make the words serviceable to the end of communication, it is necessary that they excite, in the Hearer, exactly the same Idea, they stand for in the mind of the Speaker. Without this, Men fill one another’s Heads with noise and sound; but convey not thereby their Thoughts, and lay not before one another their Ideas, which is the end of Discourse and Language.” (Locke 1690, Book III, Ch. 9, Section 6). – 198

We can never know, Locke argues, if the ideas we signify by certain words are the same as  our hearers signify by the very same words. Consequently, we can never be certain that our hearers receive the thoughts we intend by our utterances to convey. That is, the ‘imperfection of words’ consists in the fact that, because the understanding of words is a private, mental event, they do not provide speakers with a means of knowing whether their words are being correctly understood. – 199

From Saussure’s conventionalist point of view, we may be certain that all speakers of the same language link the same ‘signifies’ with the same ‘signifiants’ because that connection is arbitrarily imposed on them by the conventions of their language. Saussure’s reply to Locke’s worries about the intersubjectivity of the connection between words and ideas was to argue, in effect, that speakers and hearers do not possess any ideas other than those given to them by the signs of their language. – 199-200

Toolan, Michael (1998) “On Inscribed or Literal Meaning” in Integrational Linguistics: A First Reader (eds.) Roy Harris & George Wolf: 143-158. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd.

Literal, Conventional and Utterance Meaning

Searle on literal meaning relative to a background

Compositionalism

The Pragmaticist Tradition

Integrational Linguistics

Prototype

Concluding Remarks

The communicative event postulated by Wittgenstein fulfills the three criteria for the speech act to be ironical: the proposition is inappropriate (‘false’), it was ‘meant’ to be inappropriate, thus there is the requisition intention, and it is ‘known’ to be inappropriate – there is no mention of deceit, as there would be if the speaker was simply lying. – 160

Harris, Roy (1998) “Three Models of Significance” in Integrational Linguistics: A First Reader (eds.) Roy Harris & George Wolf: 113-125. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd.

1. Introduction

2. The surrogational model

As the term surrogational implies, the defining feature of this model is that signification is explained in terms of the sign being a surrogate or substitute for something else. According to this theory, the sign ‘stands for’ what it signifies. – 114

Words may be regarded as surrogates for physical objects, actions, etc. Alternatively, words may be regarded as surrogates for ideas or mental processes. In the former case the meaning is taken to be the corresponding object, action, etc. In the second case meaning is taken to be the corresponding concept.

            These two approaches may be termed reocentric and psychocentric surrogationalism. – 115

Triangle of Signification: Signification is construed in terms of three interconnected dyadic relations; those between sign and concept, sign and object, object and concept. – 116

3. The structural model

Whereas surrogationalism seek to explain signification in terms of relations between signs and non-signs, the structural model explains it solely in terms of relations between signs and other signs. – 117

4. The integrational model

It (Integrational semiology) starts from the more modest thesis that no act of communication is contextless and every act of communication is uniquely contextualized. – 119

the integrationist does not assume that the sign has any existence outside the communication situation which gives rise to it. – 119

from an integrational point of view the only a priori determinacy a sign has is contextual determinacy, and contexts are open-ended. -119

5. Signification, epistemology and science

6. Conclusion

Harris, Roy (1998) “The Integrational Critique of Orthodox Linguistics” in Integrational Linguistics: A First Reader (eds.) Roy Harris & George Wolf: 15-26. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd.

Introduction

if language is viewed not as an activity at all but as a faculty or ability which underlies the activity and makes it possible, the dilemma of conflicting definitions simply reappears at one remove. For there is no way of identifying the language faculty without reference to the activity which it is alleged to sponsor. – 15-16

Let segregational linguistics treat language as autonomous system, examine their interval relations, and perhaps speculate at a very abstract level about how such systems might be represented in the human brain, while integrational linguistics will concentrate on the external relations between languages and the individuals and communities using them. – 17

The philosophical basis of the integrationist position is the thesis that the linguistic universe is populated not by mysteriously unobservable objects called ‘language’ but by observable human beings who somehow and sometimes manage to communicate with one another. – 19

A sign is any observable feature or complex of features which, by virtue of its integrational function, plays role in our diverse but continuous practices of making sense. The sole necessary and sufficient condition for the constitution of a sign is our recognition of this role. – 19

From an integrational point of view, language arises from the creative use of communicational space in which we live, and speaking and writing are only two of the many human activities which articulate this space. – 19

The segregationist response

Three misconception of indeterminacy

The indeterminacy of linguistic sign

Harris, Roy (1998) “Language as a Social Interaction: Integrationalism versus Segregationalism” in Integrational Linguistics: A First Reader (eds.) Roy Harris & George Wolf: 5-45. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd.

As Silverstein did in an article published as recently as 1977, that certain ‘cultural prerequisites’, as he called them, need to be taken into account for purposes of grammatical analysis. In other words, if the linguist is to give a full and satisfactory account of native speakers’ mastery of their language, that account cannot ignore the speakers’ awareness of certain context-dependent social practices that must be presupposed if certain type of linguistic expression are to make any kind of sense at all. – 6

Segregational analysis treats language and languages as objects of study existing in their own right, independently of other varieties of communication and amenable to description in terms that are quite separate from those used in any other discipline. – 6

the integrational approach, sees language as manifested in a complex of human abilities and activities that are all integrated in social interaction, often intricately so and in such a manner that it makes little sense to segregate the linguistic from the non-linguistic components. – 6

M. M. Bakhtin (1981) The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M.M. Bakhtin (Trs.) Caryl Emerson & Michael Holquist. Austin & London: University of Texas Press.

Introduction - Michael Holquist

Heteroglossia is Bakhtin’s way of referring, in any utterance of any kind, to the peculiar interaction between the two fundamentals of communication. On the one hand, a mode of transcription must, in order to do its work of separating out texts, be a more or less fixed system. – 12

Epic and Novel

Towards the Methodology for the Study of the Novel

the novel is the sole genre that continues to develop, that is as yet uncompleted. – 19

Studying other genres is analogous to studying dead languages; studying the novel, on the other hand, is like studying languages that are not only alive, but still young. – 19

This ability (of parodying itself) of the novel to criticize itself is a remarkable feature of this ever-developing genre. – 20

the novel inserts into these other genres an indeterminacy, a certain semantic openendedness, a living contact with unfinished, still evolving contemporary reality. – 20

three basic characteristics that fundamentally distinguish the novel in principle from other genres: (1) its stylistic three-dimensionality, which is linked with multilanguage consciousness realized in the novel; (2) the radical change it effects in the temporal coordinates of the literary image; (3) the new zone opened by the novel for structuring literary images, the zone of maximal contact with the present in all its openendedness. – 21

The epic as a genre in its own right may, for our purposes, be characterized by three constitutive features: (1) a national epic past – in Goethe’s and Schiller’s terminology the “absolute past” – serves as the subject for the epic; (2) national tradition serves as the source for the epic; (3) an absolute epic distance separates the epic world from contemporary reality, that is, from the time in which the singer lives. -21

When the novel becomes the dominant genre, epistemology becomes the dominant discipline. – 22

From the Prehistory of Novelistic Discourse

Five different stylistic approaches to novelistic discourse may be observed:

1. the author’s portions alone in the novel are analyzed.

2. a neutral linguistic description of the novelist’s language

3. in a given novelist’s language, elements characteristic of his particular literary tendency are isolated

4. language is analyzed as the individual style of the given novelist

5. Novel’s devices are analyzed from the point of view of their effectiveness as rhetoric. – 30

One’s own language is never a single language: in it there are always survivals of the past and a potential for other languagedness that is more or less sharply perceived by the working literary and language consciousness. – 37

Expressing Time and Space in Novels (Chronotope)

ii. Apuleius and Petronius (Adventure-everyday novel)

·         Adventure novel of everyday life

i. The satyricon of Petronius

ii. The Golden Ass of Apuleius

·         The features are found in satire and Hellenistic diatribe, as well as works from Christian literature on the lives of saints

Characteristics

-          Mix of adventure-time and everyday-time; emergence of new type of adventure-time distinct from Greek adventure-time

-          Metamorphosis (development of the idea of metamorphosis)

iii. Ancient Biography or Autobiography

Passes through the course of a whole life.

iv. The problem of Historical Inversion and Folkloric Chronotope

v. Chivalric Romance

vi. The Function of the Rougue, Clown and Fool in the Novel

vii. The Rabelaisian Chronotope

viii. The Folkloric Bases of the Rabeliasian Chronotope

ix. The Idyllic Chronotope in the Novel

x. Concluding Remark

A literary work’s artistic unity in relationship to an actual reality is defined by its chronotope. – 93

Discourse in the Novel

Modern Stylistics & the Novel

Discourse in Poetry and Discourse in the Novel

the word does not exist in a neutral and impersonal language (it is not, after all, out of a dictionary that the speaker gets his words!), but rather it exists in other people’s mouths, in other people’s contexts, serving other people’s intentions: it is from there that one must take the wrd, and make it one’s own. – 108

Heteroglossia in the Novel

The Speaking person in the Novel

The speaking person in the novel is always, to one degree or another, an ideologue, and his words are always ideologemes. A particular language in a novel is always a particular way of viewing the world, one that strives for a social significance. – 121

What is hybridization? It is a mixture of two social languages within the limits of a single utterance, an encounter, within the arena of an utterance, between two different linguistic consciousness, separated from one another by an epoch, by social differentiation or by some other factor. – 129

The two Stylistic Lines of Development in the European Novel

Menz, Florian (1989) “Manipulation strategies in newspapers: a program for critical linguistics” in Language, Power and Ideology: Studies in Political Discourse (ed.) Ruth Wodak: 227-249. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

1. Introduction

2. “Critical Linguistics” - an extended model

3. The importance of the “Neue Kronenzeitung” in Austria

4. Trivial myths as means of ideologizing

4.1 The strategy of “black and white depiction”

4.2 “Mythical groups of reference”

4.3 Strategies for emotionalization

5. An example of miscarried ideologizing

van Dijk, Teun A. (1989) “Mediating racism: The role of the media in the reproduction of racism” in Language, Power and Ideology: Studies in Political Discourse (ed.) Ruth Wodak: 199-226. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

2. Discourse and the reproduction of racism

The news media do not passively describe or record news events in the world, but actively (re-) construct them, mostly on the basis of many types of source discourses. – 203

3. Ethnic minorities in news media

Anti-racist position are often ignored or censored or their coverage by the media is limited to preferably violent demonstration and action. 204-205

Barred from public communication, and hence from persuasive, counter-prevailing power, minority groups are forced into forms of resistance that may attract public attention through media accounts, e.g., disobedience, disruption, or destruction. These will capture the attention of journalists precisely because they are consistent with both news values (negativity, violence, deviance) and with ethnic prejudice (minorities are deviant, violent). – 205

4. Properties of news about the ethnic minority groups

4.1 Presentation

Frequency and size

4.2 Topics and thematic structure

The study of discourse meaning or content may take place at the local level of words and  sentences, and on the global level of topics or themes, which we define in terms of semantic macrostructure. – 209

Thematic structures

4.3 Actor roles

Who is speaking?

4.4 Local meaning, style and perspective

5. Context and conclusions

The media in general and news media in particular play a central role in the very production mechanism of ethnic attitudes and racism. - 220

Quastoff, Uta M. (1989) “Social Prejudice as a Resource of Power: towards he functional ambivalence of stereotypes” in Language, Power and Ideology: Studies in Political Discourse (ed.) Ruth Wodak: 181-196. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

0. Introduction

1. Problems of definition

2. Functions of prejudice

2.1 Cognitive function

2.2 Innerpsychic functions

2.3 Social functions

3. The functional ambivalence of stereotypes between necessary and dangerous functions

4. A possible explanation

Moosmuller, Sylvia (1989) “Phonological Variation in Parliamentary Discussions” in Language, Power and Ideology: Studies in Political Discourse (ed.) Ruth Wodak: 165-180. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

standard language variants is most often associated with intelligence, competence and status-related traits whereas dialect language variants are generally associated with sociability, social attractiveness and trustworthiness. – 165

2. Analysis of sociophonological variation

3. Political speech in parliament

4. Conclusion

Wodak, Ruth (1989) “1968: The power of political jargon – a “Club-2” discussion” in Language, Power and Ideology: Studies in Political Discourse (ed.) Ruth Wodak: 137-163. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Introduction

Political groups need their own language and portray themselves via this language; they define their territory by means of their language; they signal their ideology through certain slogans and stereotypes; their ideological structure is joined together in a certain way and so is their argumentation. – 137

1. Political jargon-myth-ideology-text

1.1  Ideology

We shall use “ideology” and “myth” synonymously as described by Lemberg (1983) and Mannheim (1978). For both these authors these terms mean “systems of ideas which constitute and pilot the large power-blocks of our society.” (Lemberg 1983: 41) – 140

1.2 Democracy and ideology – Bordieu’s concept

1.3 Jargon

1.3 Further characteristics of jargon

2. The institution “club-2” and its significance

2.1 The setting

2.2 Presentation of self and image

3. The “club-2” of June 13^th, 1978

4. Rudi Dutschke: “A socialist tries to find his role in society

4.1 Text-level: argumentative strategies and self-representation

4.2 Lexical level

4.3 Syntactic level

4.4 Summary

5. Daniel Cohn-Bendit, the “active fighter – never say die”!

5.1 Argumentative strategies and self representation: Text level

5.2 Lexical level

6. Summary

Holly, Werner (1989) “Credibility and Political Language” in Language, Power and Ideology: Studies in Political Discourse (ed.) Ruth Wodak: 115-135. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

1. Faith in politicians

2. Grice’s ‘intentions’ and the problem of overtness

2.1 Communication, action, meaning

Herbert P. Grice developed his much discussed model of communication. This model starts out from the assumption that any action has a purpose, i.e. an intended effect, in the case of  communication a reaction r from the addressee. The crucial point of Grice’s construction for our subject seems to be that this effect should not be generated through some causal or conventional mechanism, but through the addressee’s recognition of the addresser’s intention to induce this effect. This has been formulated in the following three conditions:

(1) S intends that H shows r.

(2) S intends that H recognizes that (1)

(3) S intends that H shows r on the basis of his recognition of (1) – 116-117

Most philosophical and linguistic theories define ‘language’ as a means of mutual understanding. The view that language should disclose and not conceal thoughts has been defended ever since the time of Augustin. – 117

2.2 Conventions, understanding, responsibility

3. Two ways of ‘non-communicating’

3.1 The “running-board” technique

3.2 The ‘phantom-meaning” technique

4. Conditions for the use of political language

Sornig, Karl (1989) “Some remarks on linguistic strategies of persuasion” in Language, Power and Ideology: Studies in Political Discourse (ed.) Ruth Wodak: 95-113. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

1. RHETORICAL USE OF LANGUAGE

Persuasion mus pre-eminently be seen as a stylistic procedure. – 96

Words can, in fact, be used as instruments of power and deception, but it is never the words themselves that should be dubbed evil and poisonous, as has become the fashion since the days of F. Mauthner. The responsibility for any damage that might have been done by using certain means of expressions still lies with the users, those who, not being able to alter the reality, try – through interpretative strategies – to change its reception and recognition by their interlocutors. – 96

By impressing or surprising somebody, the persuader tries to make his victim give up his own viewpoint and embrace that of the rhetorician, whereas in the case of flattery and the acting out of chummiess the recipient is convinced that persuader has given up his/her own point of view in favour of that of the persuaded. What is even more effective is when the victim gets the impression that both partners have had the same outlook on reality from the very beginning, in which case the persuader is regarded and accepted as one of the victim’s near and dear. – 96

1.1  Conviction vs. Seduction

1.2  Interlude on intelligibility

1.2.1     Coercive strategies

1.3  Instability of meaning and reduction of semantic content as a result of focusing and attempts at intensification

2. ARGUMENTATION

2.3 Don’t argue, quote

3. PERSUASIVE GRAMMAR

3.4 Phonetics and the magic power of similarity

4. THE LEXICON OF PERSUASION

4.1 The magic of tautology

4.2 Paraphrase

4.2.1 Euphemism

4.3 Semantic shift, albeit transitory, but with purpose

4.5 Key-words and their connotative force

4.5.1 Neologism

5. REMARKABLE UNMARKEDNESS: Simulation of reality of minds by imitation of linguistic variants of intimacy: the persuasive power of mame losn.

Brekle, Herbert E. (1989) “War with Words” in Language, Power and Ideology: Studies in Political Discourse (ed.) Ruth Wodak: 81-91. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

1. Preliminary remarks

Someone wages war on others by means of words; someone seeks adversely to affect the conditions of other peoples’ lives, to obtain power over them, to rob them of their human dignity or, in the extreme case, of their physical existence, using among other means words, statements, texts. – 81

2. Some linguistic considerations

3. Propaganda and censorship (1914-1933)

3.1 A case study of a piece of propaganda of the Allies

3.2 Propaganda strategies of the allies

The methods and ingredients of British propaganda in the First World War are generally reduced to eight basic features:

1. Stereotypes (“bull-necked Prussian officer”)

2. names with negative connotations (“huns”)

3. selection and suppression of facts, often with palliative terms (retreats are called “straightening the front”)

4. reports of cruelty (“Belgian nuns violated”, “hands of children cut off”)

5. slogans (“a war to end all wars”)

6. one-sided reporting (small victories are exaggerated, large defeats are glossed over)

7. unmistakably negative characterization of the enemy (“German militarists)

8. the so-called “bandwagon effect” (“every patriot joins up”) 

He (Hitler) rebuked the Germans for not having understood the value of propaganda as a terrible psychological weapon; all statements issued by the government and the press, both internal and external in nature must be subjective and one-sided on all questions, they must appeal to the primitive feelings of the masses and they must endlessly repeat the same few points. – 87

4. Glimpses on the present-day situation

4.1 A Bavarian example

5. Conclusion